GROUP DYNAMICS

DEFINITION OF GROUP

A group is a collection of two or more individuals. A group is an aggregation of people. They interact with each other. They are aware of one another. They have a common objective. They perceive in themselves to be a group.

MEANING OF GROUP

The word dynamics is a Greece word meaning 'force'. Hence group dynamics means the study of forces operating within a group for the social interaction. In this connection two studies of Elton Mayo and his associates and of Lewin are important.

IMPORTANCE OF GROUP DYNAMICS

There are certain preconceptions, representing realities, unrealities, qualities and evils of group but these preconceptions are integral parts of an individual personal philosophy. Such preconceptions may be positive or negative. Negative view represents that: (i) Groups do not exist and (ii) Groups are not good. Positive view is also profess the two things about groups : (i) Groups exist and (ii) Groups are good. These two characteristics of positive view may be called the characteristics of group dynamics.

FIVE PROPOSITIONS ABOUT GROUPS

There are five propositions about individuals, groups and group dynamics :

1. Group do exist.

2. Groups are inevitable and ubiquitous.

3. Groups mobilize powerful forces.

4. Groups may produce good and bad consequences.

5. Groups dynamics permits desirable consequences.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUP

1. Two or More Persons : A single individual can not form a group. For group formation, at least two persons are must. There is no specific limit on the maximum number of persons to form a group.

2. Collective Identity : Each group member knows one another. Each member of the group perceives that he/she is a part of group.

3. Interaction : There is an interaction among the members of the group. Each member shares his ideas with others through different communication methods such as face-to-face, in writing, over the telephone and across a computer network.

4. Common Purpose : The members of the group work to achieve some common objective or purpose. In fact, it is the common purpose that binds the group members together.

The various types of groups can be illustrated with the help of the following figure :

TYPES OF GROUP

There are mainly two ways of classifying groups: formal and informal groups. Different kinds of formal and informal groups are listed in the following table. A brief description of each of them follows :

Formal Group

Groups established by the organization to achieve organizational goals are called formal groups. In formal groups, the behaviours that a member should exhibit are stipulated by organization and directed towards organizational goals. It is possible to sub-classify formal groups into the following ones :

Command Group : A command group is composed of a supervisor (manager) and the subordinates who report directly to that supervisor. A command group is determined by the organizational chart. In the Department of Business Administration of a University, for example, the Head of the Department and the other faculty members in the department would comprise a command group.

Table 2.1 : Types of Groups

Formal Groups	Informal Groups
Command Group	Friend Group
Task Group	Interest Group
Project Group	Reference Group
Comittes

Fig. 2.1: Various type of groups.

Task Group : A task group comprises of persons working together to complete a common task. However, a task group can cross command relationships. In a University, for instance, if a student is accused of a campus crime, it may involve interaction among the Head of the Department, Vice Chancellor of the University and the Registrar of the University. Here, it should be noted that all command groups are task groups, but groups can cut across the organizational boundary, the reverse need not be true.

Project Group : Likewise, project groups are formed to complete a specific project. The life of the project group normally coincides with the length of the project. Assigning a research project to a University Professor by the University Grants Commission is an example of project group.

Committees : Committees are usually created outside the usual command group structure to solve recurring problems. The life of a committe may be relatively long or short. An example of committees is a University's Examination Discipline Committee created to solve discipline problems relating to examination.

Formal groups are deliberately structured to subserve organization interest. They serve as means to formal ends. Groups are empowered with the authority from the organization and delegated to the position and not to the person. The status of group is determined by its position on the organization chart. All communications to the group are sent through formal chain of command. They are controlled by the management.

REFERENCE: https://ebrary.net/2815/management/group_dynamics#876

GROUP BEHAVIOUR

Groups are composed of individuals. Hence, the group behaviour means behaviour of its members. In practice, each member of the group affects the behaviour of other members and, in turn, is also affected by them. The nature and patterns of reinforcement the members receive through their interaction with one another is also determined by the group itself. This is because the behaviour of individual members in a group becomes different than their behaviour outside the group situation. Therefore, while studying group behaviour, the factors that should be understood are group norms, group cohesion, group role, group conflict and group decision-making.

GROUP NORMS

A norm is accepted by group members. It is a rule of conduct that has been established by group members. They are standardized generalizations concerning expected behaviour in matters that are of some importance of the group.

A rule dictates what must be done by another whereas norm refers to what should be done. Group norm is a standard of behaviour. In other words, group norm is a rule that tells the individual how to behave in a particular group. Thus, group norms identify the standards against which behaviour of group members will be evaluated and help the group members know what they should not do. Norms could be formal or could be informal.

Example

In a group that drinks tea together every evening a norm arises. Every day a different member buys tea for the other members of the group.

The individuals are expected to comply with group norms.

The factors responsible for the emergence of group norms are of two kinds:

1. Members of the group seek to validate their beliefs.

2. If the group wants to maintain its identity there must be uniformity in attitudes and actions of the members. While showing problems the interactions of members of the group must be coordinated. Then only the group can survive.

According to Edgar Henry Schein (born in 1928) there are pivotal and relevant group norms. While the pivotal norms are confirmed by every member of the group, the relevant norms are desirable to be confirmed by the members. With increase in the size of the group, the acceptability of norms tends to lessen. Small deviation of norms is allowable. However, in case of extreme deviation, the deviator gets punished. For example, when the union is on strike, its members attending to work punished by being boycotted by the group. Thus, the group norms have following characteristics :

1. As personality reveals an individual, so group norms do for groups.

2. Norms serve as the basis for behaviour of group members.

3. They predict and control the behaviour of members in groups.

4. Norms are applied to all members of the group, though not uniformly.

GROUP ROLE

A role means a set of expected behaviour pattern attached to a position or post in a social unit. In an organization, an employee's role is briefly indicated by a position title and elaborately specified by a job description. As regards group roles, these are designated and assigned in formal groups. These roles are prescribed by the organization with a view to make division among workers and assign them responsibility. But, group roles are usually not explicitly prescribed in informal groups. That is why in informal groups, one group member may perform several roles or several members may also perform the same role.

Types of Group Roles

In practice, the group members may be expected to perform a variety of different roles. A complete listing of these group roles would be very lengthy. However, the three most relevant group roles are discussed as follows :

(i) Work Roles : These roles relate to task-oriented activities involved in accomplishing the group tasks or group goals. Developing a strategy for accomplishing the task, assigning jobs, evaluating work progress and clarifying the group goals are the examples of work roles related to task-oriented activities.

(ii) Maintenance Role : These roles relate to social-emotional activities of group members that help maintain their involvement and commitment to group. Examples of these roles may be encouraging other fellow members to participate, praising and rewarding other members for their excellent contribution and similar other activities designed to maintain a friendly group atmosphere.

(iii) Blocking Roles : These are the activities that disrupt or destroy the group. These activities may

include such things as dominating the discussion, attacking other group members, disagreeing unreasonably with other group members and distracting group by unnecessary humor.

Reference: https://ebrary.net/2819/management/group_behaviour

6 Ways Managers Can Improve Team Creativity and Decision Making

In effective group decision making, there needs to be a balancing between what the group leader does and what group members do. This is an important focus in group decision-making strategies that promote positive company culture and outcomes. The key is balancing the leader’s creativity with the group’s creativity to reach the optimal zone.

If you are looking to expand the zone of decision-making creativity in your workplace, here are six suggestions to consider.

1. Be mindful. What is the desired outcome?

Transparency and collaboration mean more than giving employees a say or a vote on what the group is going to do. They mean group members have a voice that is listened to and they actively participate in company decision making. Effective leaders are mindful of employees’ voices and actively seek their input.

2. Don’t act bureaucratically. Avoid “My way or the highway.”

A bureaucratic top-down leader makes a decision and requires the group to implement it, without input or feedback. This may increase group efficiency in the short term, but it diminishes team buy-in and creativity in the long term.

3. Don’t drag decision making out too long. Avoid “analysis paralysis.”

When decision making is drawn out too long and too many options are evaluated in too much detail, group creativity may be high initially but quickly decreases as the process takes too much time.

4. Trust yourself. Trust your team.

Good decision making requires leaders to trust in his or her own decision-making ability, and also to trust in the group’s ability to generate ideas and solutions that are beneficial.

5. Add resources. Remove obstacles.

An effective leader must be aware of needed resources and unnecessary obstacles in the decision making process, then use the hiring process and skills training to add those needed resources.

6. Read the Group. Develop each member.

Sometimes the leader’s mere recognition and encouragement of an individual member’s skills, attitude, or efforts may be that one thing which “grows” that person into a strong collaborative member of the team.

Reference: https://www.decision-wise.com/6-ways-managers-can-improve-team-creativity-and-decision-making/

Diversity for Groups & Teams in the Workplace

Businesses both large and small are competing for new customers on a global scale, and, in doing so, they soon recognize the value of diversity in organizational groups and teams to the bottom line. When creating a group or team in the workplace, smart managers realize that with increased diversity come new ideas, products and services.

Why Should Businesses Strive for Diverse Groups and Teams?

When a group or team comprises people who differ in age, sex, race, cultural background and other factors, the hoped-for result is a collaboration of wildly diverse thinking. Working with people who differ from each other challenges people's preconceived notions about how the world works and it forces people to step outside their comfort zones and consider new thought processes. By opening people up to new ways of thinking, the hoped-for result is often new ideas, new processes, new services and new products.

Making Diversity Work

When establishing new groups or teams, smart managers strive for diversity by balancing the individuals they select based upon differing internal factors, such as age, race and gender, and external factors, including differing backgrounds, educational experiences and political ideologies. Additionally, when working with diverse groups and teams, smart managers seek open discussion, encourage feedback among group and team members, actively listen, and practice flexible decision making. After all, having diverse groups and teams in the workplace provides little value if their new ways of thinking are ignored.

Reference: “Business Communication: Process and Product”, Mary Ellen Guffey; 2008

 http://smallbusiness.chron.com/diversity-groups-teams-workplace-10998.html

Workplace Issues

People spend nearly one-third of their adult lives at work, which causes workplace issues to become common source of stress for many. It is impossible to have a workplace where everyone's roles, expectations, and personalities work perfectly together, without conflict. As such, certain workplace issues may cause negative psychological symptoms. Research shows that perceived stress in the workplace, for example, is associated with a higher prevalence of mental health issues such as depression and anxiety. Workers may find that discussing their workplace stress or challenges with a trained mental health professional is helpful to them both professionally and personally.

Common Workplace Issues

Common workplace issues that employees face include:

• Interpersonal conflict
• Communication problems
• Gossip
• Bullying
• Harassment
• Discrimination
• Low motivation and job satisfaction
• Performance issues
• Poor job fitAdvanced Search

The workplace is typically an environment in which people with different personalities, communication styles, and worldviews interact. These differences are one potential source of workplace issues, and can ultimately lead to stress and tension for those involved. Although all employees have the right to be treated fairly and to feel safe in the workplace, some employees face bullying, harassment, and/or discrimination. Members of the LGBT community, specifically, remain unprotected in the workplace by a national nondiscrimination policy. Additionally, some employees may experience dissatisfaction with their work, struggle with their performance on the job, or have difficulty finding a job that fits their abilities and interests.

Workplace issues can lead to decreased performance/productivity, loss of job/termination, decreased satisfaction/happiness, stress, and a wide variety of mental health issues. Harassment in the workplace can also lead to legal troubles. The American Psychological Association notes that job insecurity and lack of support at work can exacerbate workplace issues.

High Stress Jobs

Some jobs involve a particularly high degree of stress. One theory, known as the job demand-control (JDC) model, posits that high degrees of work stress are prevalent in jobs with many demands and little control over working conditions. Some jobs that are known to be particularly stressful include firefighter, airline pilot, enlisted military personnel, police officer, and event coordinator. Additionally, some jobs such as healthcare worker, teacher, social worker, and administrative support worker have been associated with increased levels of depression. Elevated rates of substance abuse are prevalent among employees who work in mining, construction, and the food service industry.

Work-related stress is a significant problem, with an estimated 40% of workers describing their job as very or extremely stressful. In addition to mental health symptoms, work-related stress can cause physical health problems such as heart attacks, hypertension, pain, and insomnia.

How Psychotherapy Can Help with Workplace Issues

There are various ways in which psychotherapy may be useful to help resolve workplace issues. Therapy can effectively treat depression, anxiety, and other mental health symptoms that result from workplace issues. Therapists can also teach healthy coping skills that employees can use to manage work-related stress and other issues. For example, cognitive behavioral therapy helps people to identify and change unhealthy thoughts, which often results in improved mood and overall well-being. Mindfulness, meditation, and other stress management techniques can be taught in psychotherapy. Therapy can also be useful for improving an individual’s assertive communication skills, as well as other conflict resolution skills. These skills can then be applied in the workplace to improve one’s experience at work.

Vocational counseling is a specific type of counseling that can be useful for workplace issues such as job fit, performance, and satisfaction. Vocational counselors help employees identify their specific skills and abilities in order to help them develop career goals and find jobs for which they are well suited. Industrial and organizational (I-O) psychology is also particularly relevant to workplace issues, as it focuses on human behavior in the workplace. I-O psychologists are sometimes brought into a workplace to identify areas of concern within an organization, as well as to help workers create a more collaborative, healthy work environment.

Some employers, including many federal agencies, offer counseling to their employees at no cost through employee assistance programs (EAPs). These counseling sessions provide an opportunity for employees to discuss any issues that may be affecting their work performance with trained professionals.

Disclosing a Mental Health Condition to Your Employer

The decision to disclose a mental health condition to an employer can be a difficult one. Although the Americans with Disabilities Act prohibits employers from firing employees with mental health conditions as long as they can perform the functions of their job, employees who make a disclosure may still face negative consequences such as not getting promoted, being treated differently, or even being fired. For this reason, many employees may not feel safe disclosing their mental health condition. While informing a supervisor about mental health issues can help an employee get additional support or necessary accommodations at work, there is also the potential for stigma and other negative effects. Ultimately, the decision to disclose is a personal one.

Reference: https://www.goodtherapy.org/learn-about-therapy/issues/workplace-issues

What Are the Factors Affecting Job Satisfaction?

An employee's overall satisfaction with his job is the result of a combination of factors -- and financial compensation is only one of them. Management's role in enhancing employees' job satisfaction is to make sure the work environment is positive, morale is high and employees have the resources they need to accomplish the tasks they have been assigned.

Working Conditions

Because employees spend so much time in their work environment each week, it's important for companies to try to optimize working conditions. Such things as providing spacious work areas rather than cramped ones, adequate lighting and comfortable work stations contribute to favorable work conditions. Providing productivity tools such as upgraded information technology to help employees accomplish tasks more efficiently contributes to job satisfaction as well.

Opportunity for Advancement

Employees are more satisfied with their current job if they see a path available to move up the ranks in the company and be given more responsibility and along with it higher compensation. Many companies encourage employees to acquire more advanced skills that will lead to the chance of promotion. Companies often pay the cost of tuition for employees taking university courses, for example. During an employee's annual performance review, a supervisor should map out a path showing her what she needs to accomplish and what new skills she needs to develop in order to be on a track to advancement within the organization.

Workload and Stress Level

Dealing with a workload that is far too heavy and deadlines that are impossible to reach can cause job satisfaction to erode for even the most dedicated employee. Falling short of deadlines results in conflict between employees and supervisors and raises the stress level of the workplace. Many times, this environment is caused by ineffective management and poor planning. The office operates in a crisis mode because supervisors don't allow enough time for employees to perform their assigned tasks effectively or because staff levels are inadequate.

Respect from Co-Workers

Employees seek to be treated with respect by those they work with. A hostile work environment -- with rude or unpleasant coworkers -- is one that usually has lower job satisfaction. In an August 2011 survey published by FoxBusiness.com, 50 percent of those responding said they had personally experienced a great amount of workplace incivility. Fifty percent also believe morale is poor where they work. Managers need to step in and mediate conflicts before they escalate into more serious problems requiring disciplinary action. Employees may need to be reminded what behaviors are considered inappropriate when interacting with coworkers.

Relationship with Supervisors

Effective managers know their employees need recognition and praise for their efforts and accomplishments. Employees also need to know their supervisor's door is always open for them to discuss any concerns they have that are affecting their ability to do their jobs effectively and impeding their satisfaction at the office.

Financial Rewards

Job satisfaction is impacted by an employee's views about the fairness of the company wage scale as well as the current compensation she may be receiving. Companies need to have a mechanism in place to evaluate employee performance and provide salary increases to top performers. Opportunities to earn special incentives, such as bonuses, extra paid time off or vacations, also bring excitement and higher job satisfaction to the workplace.

REFERENCE: Fox Business; Incivility in the Workplace is a Growing Problem; Michael Woodward; August 2011

ASSESSING ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS

Understanding organizational goals and strategies, as well as the concept of fitting design to various contingencies, is a first step toward understanding organizational effectiveness. Organizational goals represent the reason for an organization’s existence and the outcomes it seeks to achieve. The next few sections of the chapter explore the topic of effectiveness and how effectiveness is measured in organizations.

     Organizational effectiveness is the degree to which an organization realizes its goals.48 Effectiveness is a broad concept. It implicitly takes into consideration a range of variables at both the organizational and departmental levels. Effectiveness evaluates the extent to which multiple goals—whether official or operative—are attained.

     Efficiency is a more limited concept that pertains to the internal workings of the organization. Organizational efficiency is the amount of resources used to produce a unit of output. It can be measured as the ratio of inputs to outputs. If one organization can achieve a given production level with fewer resources than another organization, it would be described as more efficient.

     Sometimes efficiency leads to effectiveness, but in other organizations, efficiency and effectiveness are not related. An organization may be highly efficient but fail to achieve its goals because it makes a product for which there is no demand. Likewise, an organization may achieve its profit goals but be inefficient. Efforts to increase efficiency, particularly through severe cost cutting, can also sometimes make the organization less effective. One regional fast food chain wanting to cut costs decided to reduce food waste by not cooking any food until it was ordered. The move reduced the chain’s costs, but it also led to delayed service, irritated customers, and lower sales.

     Overall effectiveness is difficult to measure in organizations. Organizations are large, diverse, and fragmented. They perform many activities simultaneously, pursue multiple goals, and generate many outcomes, some intended and some unintended. Managers determine what indicators to measure in order to gauge the effectiveness of their organizations. Studies and surveys have found that many managers have a difficult time with the concept of evaluating effectiveness based on characteristics that are not subject to hard, quantitative measurement. However, top executives at some of today’s leading companies are finding new ways to measure effectiveness, including the use of such “soft” indications as customer loyalty and employee engagement.

REFERENCE

Daft, R. L. (2010). Understanding the Theory and Design of Organizations. 10, 118. South-Western. Cengage Learning.

ORGANİZATİONAL ECOSYSTEMS

 

 Interorganizational relationships are the relatively enduring resource transactions, flows, and linkages that occur among two or more organizations. Traditionally, these transactions and relationships have been seen as a necessary evil to obtain what an organization needs. The presumption has been that the world is composed of distinct businesses that thrive on autonomy and compete for supremacy. A company may be forced into interorganizational relationships depending on its needs and the instability and complexity of the environment.

     A new view described by James Moore argues that organizations are now evolving into business ecosystems. An organizational ecosystem is a system formed by the interaction of a community of organizations and their environment. An ecosystem cuts across traditional industry lines. A company can create its own ecosystem. Apple, for instance, travels in several major industries, including consumer electronics, Internet services, mobile phones, personal computers, and entertainment. Its ecosystem also includes hundreds of suppliers and millions of customers across many markets. Google is getting into the entertainment business as well, rolling out dozens of short cartoons by “Family Guy” creator Seth McFarlane and building a role as “middleman to Hollywood talent coming online.” Cable television companies are offering new forms of phone service, and telephone companies are getting into the television business. Today, successful companies develop relationships with numerous other organizations cutting across traditional business boundaries.

REFERENCE:Reference: Daft, R. L. (2010). 148. Understanding the Theory and Design of Organizations.SOUTH-WESTERN. Cengage Learning.

The Private Enterprise System

      No business operates in a vacuum. All operate within a larger economic system that determines how goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed in a society. The type of economic system employed in a society also determines patterns of resource use. Some economic systems, such as communism, feature strict controls on business ownership, profits, and resources to accomplish government goals.

     In the United States, businesses function within the private enterprise system, an economic system that rewards firms for their ability to identify and serve the needs and demands of customers. The private enterprise system minimizes government interference in economic activity. Businesses that are adept at satisfying customers gain access to necessary factors of production and earn profits.

     Another name for the private enterprise system is capitalism. Adam Smith, often identified as the father of capitalism, first described the concept in his book The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. Smith believed that an economy is best regulated by the “invisible hand” of competition, the battle among businesses for consumer acceptance. Smith thought that competition among firms would lead to consumers’ receiving the best possible products and prices because less efficient producers would gradually be driven from the marketplace.

     The “invisible hand” concept is a basic premise of the private enterprise system. In the United States, competition regulates much of economic life. To compete successfully, each firm must find a basis for competitive differentiation, the unique combination of organizational abilities, products, and approaches that sets a company apart from competitors in the minds of customers. Businesses operating in a private enterprise system face a critical task of keeping up with changing marketplace conditions. Firms that fail to adjust to shifts in consumer preferences or ignore the actions of competitors leave themselves open to failure. Google, for instance, continues to challenge Microsoft’s dominance in the market for business word-processing and spreadsheet software. It is expected to enable its Marketing Solutions Web site to sell third-party software to Google Apps customers. In the short time since it began its expansion into enterprise business applications, Google reports adding almost 2 million organizations for Gmail and Google Docs, an aggressive launch to which Microsoft must respond. 

Reference: Boone, L. ve Kurtz, D. (2011). Çağdaş İş, 14, 10.  Asya: John Wiley & Sons

Individual versus Organizational Power

           In popular literature, power is often described as a personal characteristic, and a frequent topic is how one person can influence or dominate another person. Managers have five sources of personal power.

        Legitimate power is the authority granted by the organization to the formal management position a manager holds. Reward power stems from the ability to bestow rewards—a promotion, raise, or pat on the back—to other people. The authority to punish or recommend punishment is called coercive power. Expert power derives from a person’s greater skill or knowledge about the tasks being performed. The last, referent power, is derived from personal characteristics: people admire the manager and want to be like or identify with the manager out of respect and admiration. Each of these sources may be used by individuals within organizations.

    Power in organizations, however, is often the result of structural characteristics.Organizations are large, complex systems that may contain hundreds, even thousands, of people. These systems have a formal hierarchy in which some tasks are more important regardless of who performs them. In addition, some positions have access to more information and greater resources, or their contribution to the organization is more critical. Thus, the important power processes in organizations reflect larger organizational relationships, both horizontal and vertical.

           Reference: Daft, R. L. (2010). Understanding the Theory and Design of Organizations.SOUTH-WESTERN. Cengage Learning.